Assessed is a large-scale iron supplementation programme for the 70 000 pregnant refugee women cared for by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA). For this purpose, a retrospective survey of 1267 antenatal records was conducted in health centres located in the West Bank, Gaza, Syrian Arab Republic, Jordan, and Lebanon. The following operational problems were identified: late entry to antenatal care; high drop-out rate from antenatal care; low compliance in follow-up haemoglobin examinations; and misdirected continued testing of women who were not anaemic at registration. Routine iron supplementation of all pregnant women should be considered only in those countries where severe anaemia is prevalent and should always be coupled with additional interventions that are effective at improving iron deficiency anaemia in a given population. In most countries attention should be directed towards changing dietary habits to enhance the availability of local foodstuffs that are rich in iron. One initial haemoglobin test may help in focusing on the relatively few initially anaemic subjects who need further attention. Repeated testing during pregnancy is unwarranted.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis has been endemic in Aleppo, Syria, for generations. Recently there has been a clear increase in the incidence of the disease, and more patients have shown a lack of response to antimonials. We report the results of a survey, undertaken over the period 2-17 January 1995, at a general hospital in Aleppo, of all patients presenting with cutaneous leishmaniasis. Patients were grouped according to the stage of their disease, and surgical biopsies were carried out for histopathological investigation. Patients who were unresponsive to treatment and proceeded to chronicity were predominantly children aged under 15 years with facial lesions. Histopathological examination showed that the inflammatory changes had reached the upper layers of the subcutaneous tissues in 10 of the 25 chronic cases (40%) and three of the four acute cases (75%). These levels of the skin are not directly reached by the antimonials administered intralesionally. The inadequacy of the intralesional method alone and technical errors in administration are discussed.

The public sector in developing countries is increasingly contracting with the non-state sector to improve access, efficiency and quality of health services. We conducted a multicountry study to assess the range of health services contracted out, the process of contracting and its influencing factors in ten countries of the Eastern Mediterranean Region: Afghanistan, Bahrain, Egypt, Islamic Republic of Iran, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Pakistan, the Syrian Arab Republic and Tunisia. Our results showed that Afghanistan, Egypt, Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan had experience with outsourcing of primary care services; Jordan, Lebanon and Tunisia extensively contracted out hospital and ambulatory care services; while Bahrain, Morocco and the Syrian Arab Republic outsourced mainly non-clinical services. The interest of the non-state sector in contracting was to secure a regular source of revenue and gain enhanced recognition and credibility. While most countries promoted contracting with the private sector, the legal and bureaucratic support in countries varied with the duration of experience with contracting. The inherent risks evident in the contracting process were reliance on donor funds, limited number of providers in rural areas...

More than 2 million Iraqis have fled their war-ravaged country since 2003, with most taking refuge in neighbouring Jordan and the Syrian Arab Republic. A recent WHO-hosted regional consultation highlighted the new troubles faced by many of those displaced, including limited access to health care in their host countries.

The authorities have made good recent progress in important public financial management (PFM) areas. They have strengthened the overall regulatory framework of the budget process by adopting a new basic finance law, and further deepened budget integration by transferring the responsibilities for the capital budget from the State Planning Commission (SPC) to the Ministry of Finance (MoF). They have also improved the budget presentation by providing information to parliament for selected ministries on the base of a simple program structure.The main purpose of this report is to assist the authorities in advancing their reform agenda for modernization of the PFM system. To this end, the report: Develops an action plan for PFM reform. The plan sets out specific activities in a selection of reform areas identified as priorities in discussion with the Minister of Finance, as well as the suggested timing and possible requirement of technicalassistance (TA); and elaborates, in detail, actions that need to be undertaken in four broad PFM areas as identified in the plan: (i) medium-term orientation of the budget; (ii) budget integration reforms; (iii) budgetary treatment of public economic entities; and (iv) treasury reforms. Key recommendations of the report include:Prepare a three-year fiscal forecast and link fiscal projections to an approved debtsustainability and fiscal strategy framework; present as part of the budget documentation information on the revenues and expenditures of the public economic entities; and progressively strengthen governance of the sector; gradually extend the use of programs for presentation purposes in the budget by adding up to five to six new ministries in 2010...

This electricity sector strategy note was prepared by the World Bank, at the request of the Government of Syria. It identifies options for the Government to improve the financial and technical performance of the electricity sector. The note focuses in particular on the following major sector objectives: a) increasing the efficiency of the electric power sector, including by reducing large technical and commercial losses now standing at 27 percent of demand; b) reducing the growing gap between demand and supply of electricity through capacity expansion, thus enhancing security of electricity supply and reducing power outages; c) increasing security of supply further in an environmentally sustainable manner by developing vigorous energy efficiency and renewable energy programs; d) encouraging regional energy integration through a series of targeted investments in electric power and natural gas; e) attracting private sector investment into generation capacity expansion, including in renewable energy, through independent power producers; and f) making the electricity sector financially viable and coordinating natural gas production plans with electricity generation requirements.

The Syrian war and the subsequent emergence and spread of the Islamic State (ISIS) have transformed the Levant in ways one could not have imagined prior to 2011. As the numbers of dead and of refugees and internally displaced kept climbing, and as families were torn apart and neighborhoods were turned into war zones, economies slumped and regional economic ties broke down. The shock of these events, henceforth referred to as the Levant conflict or war, has changed the region in profound ways, yet there are no systematic evaluations of its economic impact. Our objective was to address this gap and quantify both the direct and indirect economic effects of the war on the countries in the greater Levant--Turkey, the Syrian Arab Republic, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and the Arab Republic of Egypt. It is important to note that the analysis in our paper does not factor in several types of costs. The authors do not assess the cost of delivering basic services to refugees in receiving countries; these costs could be substantial for Jordan...

(En) Understanding the legal framework in force in the SEM countries is of paramount importance in order to grasp the functioning of the labour market and the influence that it can have on migration. The analysis presented here focuses on 11 countries (Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, Turkey) and deals with those aspects of the legal regulation in force which can be considered responsible for shaping the employment relationship in term of rigidity or flexibility. The Report is divided in a series of country-studies where the various legal components of the labour market are presented and critically analysed following the same structure for each one in order to enhance comparability: rules concerning hiring, flexible contracts, working time, dismissals, and work inspections. The results, which draw mainly upon international organisations’ sources and upon the analysis of legal texts and laws in these countries, are preliminary. In the concluding remarks, it is explained that if the most valuable research output of this report is to provide cross-comparative analysis to a vast legal material critically organised, the main limitation resides in the fact that it is mainly cantered on the black-letters of the rules and therefore further research must be done on the multifaceted aspects that contribute to shaping a labour market...

The Covenant of Mayors for the Members of the Southern Partnership required an adaption of the Covenant of Mayors methodology to the local situation and a complete revision of the Guidebook "How to develop a Sustainable Energy Action Plan (SEAP)". A similar adaption was made when extending the Covenant of Mayors to the Eastern Partnership Members, which allowed for a green growth while keeping up with the fixed 2020 targets. This revision aims to tackle in a more appropriate way the specific institutional and economic situation of the Southern Partnership Members involved in the initiative (Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Morocco, Palestine, Syrian Arab Republic and Tunisia). In particular this report describes the business-as-usual scenario approach and explains the underlying method and data applied for calculating specific coefficients in order to estimate emissions in 2020. As for the extension of the Covenant of Mayors project to the Eastern partnership, this option of using business as usual scenarios would avoid a burden to the signatories in their aspiration for further development and would allow social and economic progress. A scientific region-specific business-as-usual projection for the Mediterranean area...

Public diplomacy is gaining international recognition as a necessary and important tool needed for nations to successfully pursue their political goals. But what is public diplomacy? Public diplomacy involves the transnational flow of ideas and the active engagement of both government and non-government actors in policy development. Public diplomacy can be used to influence governments through the public or merely as a way to influence the public in order to build broad national relationships. Public diplomacy can be effective because it supports traditional diplomacy, because of the message it delivers or through the context a message is delivered in. To be effective it is necessary for a government to clarify for themselves an understanding of public diplomacy that matches their goals and objectives. The growing importance of public diplomacy has been driven largely by globalisation and the increasing impact many non-government actors are having on policy development. Nations now recognise that in order for them to effectively pursue national interests many actors need to be incorporated into creating an enabling policy environment. Nations also realise that public diplomacy can have a positive effect on their reputation which has important political and economic ramifications. Public diplomacy is particularly important for small-medium sized nations who cannot match the military or political powers of larger nations. Because public diplomacy is a freely contested activity...

The US-led invasion of Iraq in early 2003 and the subsequent disintegration of sectarian relations within Iraq since 2006 has driven unprecedented displacement in the Middle Eastern region, as Iraqis have fled Baghdad and other centres of violence in droves and searched for safer living conditions in neighbouring states. The urban nature of this refugee crisis challenges host-states and humanitarian agencies such as the UNHCR to create flexible policies that can engage with and provide for impoverished Iraqi refugees in an urban context. This issue is particularly pertinent in the Syrian Arab Republic, which currently hosts the vast majority of Iraqi refugees. Although Syria is not a signatory of the Geneva Convention or the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, it has nevertheless taken a unique and interesting approach to the refugee crisis which is important to examine. Due to their disastrous experience with Palestinian refugees and lack of international aid, Syria defines Iraqis fleeing Iraq as 'guests' of Syria rather than 'refugees'. Indeed, an integral part of Syria's response to this influx of refugees has been use of a flexible 'informal' policy; although Syria has no official 'refugee' policy, it has nevertheless manipulated their 'guest' policy and inconsistent enforcement of this and other policies to create a multifaceted response to the Iraqi refugees. This paper examines both formal and informal Syrian policy in order to assess their response to an influx of over one million Iraqi refugees over the past seven years. It suggests that Syrian informal policy was largely successful in providing humanitarian aid- free schooling and healthcare...

Public diplomacy presents a unique challenge to the Syrian Arab Republic, whose public image in the international arena has been tarnished in a post-9/11 climate where 'Middle East' is all too often synonymous in Western media with 'lslamist extremism', 'radicalism', 'intolerance'. Attempts by the Syrian government and its embassies overseas to counter negative perceptions have largely centered on one of Syria's key strengths: its significant cultural and historical tradition. To this end, Syria has been promoted as a 'Cradle of Civilisation', with emphasis placed on its scenic landscapes, as well as historical and archaeological landmarks. While this has been important in advancing a more positive image of Syria in the international domain, there is scope to build on these efforts in order to further Syria's interests overseas. This paper examines one aspect of Syrian society that defies existing negative perceptions: its thriving Christian population. It raises the question: can the religious tolerance enjoyed by Syrian Christians under a secular framework of government be used as a public diplomacy tool to enhance Syria's international reputation? Syrian Christians constitute roughly 10 per cent of a country characterised by significant religious and ethnic diversity. Along with Sunni Muslims that represent the majority of Syria (74 per cent)...

The election of Barack Obama as the 44th President of the United States was historically significant for two poignant reasons. Firstly, as the first African-American to be elected President, he was a symbol of the breakdown in racial prejudices that have plagued the US to date. Secondly, the election was momentous because it was seen as a rejection of the previous Republican administration's neo-conservative approach to domestic and foreign policy. Ten months into his term, Obama has displayed a liberalist approach to foreign policy, with a heavy emphasis on internationalism, multilateralism and a policy of engagement. Countries that have previously been isolated by the United States are now being invited into bilateral dialogue. One prominent example of this new policy of engagement in action is the rejuvenated dialogue between the US and the Syrian Arab Republic. The two countries are now attempting to overcome a long history of animosity to address regional issues and to formulate a strategy for peace and stability in the Middle East. The leading question now is whether Australia, an important ally of the US, will follow Obama's lead and pursue a more engaged relationship with Syria. Australia's relationship with Syria at present is modest...

This Economics of Climate Change in the Arab World is presents detailed case studies on the impacts of climate change in the Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, and the Republic of Yemen that were summarized. The Arab region is already being impacted by climate change through more frequent cyclones, floods, and prolonged droughts. Thousands of rural producers have seen their crops and herds devastated by extreme conditions, and have been forced to abandon their traditional way of life and migrate to crowded urban areas. Those who stay behind in rural areas struggle to cope with shortages of food and water. Climate change affects countries' economies and households through a variety of channels. Rising temperatures and changes in rainfall patterns affect agricultural yields of both rainfed and irrigated crops, and thus global and local food markets. Adaptation is a process that will take place over decades as new information makes policy makers reevaluate their climate vulnerabilities. Still, by seizing the opportunity to act now and act together...

This economy profile for Doing Business 2015 presents the 11 Doing Business indicators for the Syrian Arab Republic. To allow for useful comparison, the profile also provides data for other selected economies (comparator economies) for each indicator. Doing Business 2015 is the 12th edition in a series of annual reports measuring the regulations that enhance business activity and those that constrain it. Economies are ranked on their ease of doing business; for 2015 the Syrian Arab Republic ranks 175. A high ease of doing business ranking means the regulatory environment is more conducive to the starting and operation of a local firm. Doing Business presents quantitative indicators on business regulations and the protection of property rights that can be compared across 189 economies from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe and over time. Doing Business measures regulations affecting 11 areas of the life of a business known as indicators. Ten of these areas are included in this year's ranking on the ease of doing business: starting a business...

This economy profile presents the Doing Business indicators for Syrian Arab Republic. In a series of annual reports, Doing Business assesses regulations affecting domestic firms in 189 economies and ranks the economies in 10 areas of business regulation, such as starting a business, resolving insolvency and trading across borders. This year's report data cover regulations measured from June 2012 through May 2013. The report is the 11th edition of the Doing Business series.

This paper uses a global computable general-equilibrium framework with new detail on six Levant countries -- the Arab Republic of Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, the Syrian Arab Republic, and Turkey -- to quantify the direct and indirect economic effects of the Syrian war and the advance of the Islamic State on the Levant. Syria and Iraq bear the brunt of the direct economic costs, while the other Levant countries lose in per capita but not in aggregate terms. The fact that the Islamic State's spread has undermined regional trade adds to varying degrees to the direct costs in all Levant economies and in the case of Syria and Iraq doubles the welfare losses. All these countries are foregoing opportunities to expand intra-Levant trade and the associated gains in economic efficiency and diversification. The average welfare effects are not indicative of within-country incidence, which varies among workers, landowners, and capitalists.

This economy profile for Doing Business 2016 presents the 11 Doing Business indicators for Syrian Arab Republic. To allow for useful comparison, the profile also provides data for other selected economies (comparator economies) for each indicator. Doing Business 2016 is the 13th edition in a series of annual reports measuring the regulations that enhance business activity and those that constrain it. Economies are ranked on their ease of doing business; for 2015 Syrian Arab Republic ranks 175. A high ease of doing business ranking means the regulatory environment is more conducive to the starting and operation of a local firm. Doing Business presents quantitative indicators on business regulations and the protection of property rights that can be compared across 189 economies from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe and over time. Doing Business sheds light on how easy or difficult it is for a local entrepreneur to open and run a small to medium-size business when complying with relevant regulations. It measures and tracks changes in regulations affecting 11 areas in the life cycle of a business: starting a business...

The public sector in developing countries is increasingly contracting with the non-state sector to improve access, efficiency and quality of health services. We conducted a multicountry study to assess the range of health services contracted out, the process of contracting and its influencing factors in ten countries of the Eastern Mediterranean Region: Afghanistan, Bahrain, Egypt, Islamic Republic of Iran, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Pakistan, the Syrian Arab Republic and Tunisia. Our results showed that Afghanistan, Egypt, Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan had experience with outsourcing of primary care services; Jordan, Lebanon and Tunisia extensively contracted out hospital and ambulatory care services; while Bahrain, Morocco and the Syrian Arab Republic outsourced mainly non-clinical services. The interest of the non-state sector in contracting was to secure a regular source of revenue and gain enhanced recognition and credibility. While most countries promoted contracting with the private sector, the legal and bureaucratic support in countries varied with the duration of experience with contracting. The inherent risks evident in the contracting process were reliance on donor funds, limited number of providers in rural areas...

OBJECTIVE: To present data from a 2008 infant mortality survey conducted in Jordan, Lebanon, the Syrian Arab Republic, the Gaza Strip and the West Bank and analyse infant mortality trends among Palestine refugees in 1995-2005. METHODS: Following the preceding birth technique, mothers who were registering a new birth were asked if the preceding child was alive or dead, the day the child was born and the date of birth of the neonate whose birth was being registered. From this information, neonatal, infant and early child mortality rates were estimated. The age at death for early child mortality was determined by the mean interval between successive births and the mean age of neonates at registration. FINDINGS: In 2005-2006, infant mortality among Palestine refugees ranged from 28 deaths per 100 000 live births in the Syrian Arab Republic to 19 in Lebanon. Thus, infant mortality in Palestine refugees is among the lowest in the Near East. However, infant mortality has stopped decreasing in recent years, although it remains at a level compatible with the attainment of Millennium Development Goal 4. CONCLUSION: Largely owing to the primary health care provided by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) for Palestine Refugees in the Near East and other entities...